The Classical Economies Collection

SERBIA

LAZAR HREBELJANOVIC
Knez of Pomoravlje, 1371-1389

AR Dinar (0.76 g, 15mm, 12).

      Mint: Novo Brdo.
      Struck: Uncertain.
      Obv: ∴+COnTЄ∴ ∴ΠASAR∴
                Lazar standing facing, holding scepter
      Rev: nOΛO OMOnT [...] AΛPЄCS
                Christ Pantokrator standing facing; star to left,
                serpent(?) to right.
      Ref: Jovanovic 32.13; Ivanisevic 24.14; cf. Dimitrijevic 343.7.

Notes: Following the death of Serbian emperor Stefan Uros IV Dusan in 1355, the crown passed to his son, Stefan Uros V 'the Weak'. In the ensuing years, the power of the local knezes (princes) grew considerably at the expense of the central authority. In response, Uros V closely aligned himself with the most powerful of these lords, Vukasin Mrnjavcevic, knez of Macedonia, whom Uros crowned king in 1365. Uros also raised Vukasin's brother, Jovan Ugljesa, knez of the Ser region, to despot. Vukasin was soon not only a co-ruler of Uros, but also his heir. In 1371, though, this new dynasty came to an end as Vukasin and his brother were killed fighting the Turks along the Marica. By this time, Uros was an ephemeral power, and the local knez were supreme in their respective regions. These princes often fought against one another, each attempting to consolidate enough power to claim supremacy over all of the Serbian lands. By the late 1370s, Lazar Hrebeljanovic, knez of Pomoravlje, emerged as one of the most powerful, controlling large territories in central and northern Serbia with a number of vassals. Lazar also controlled the two most important mining regions, Rudnik and Novo Brdo. Perhaps his most prestigious accomplishment, though, was the rapprochement of the Serbian and Byzantine churches. As part of the settlement the Byzantine church recognized the authority of the Serbian patriarch, whose creation by Uros IV in 1346 had sparked the schism. As a result, Lazar now had the two primary components of rule required for legitimacy in the eyes of Medieval Europe, temporal and secular authority. To solidify his position, Lazar married his daughters to a number of the other knez in Serbia, creating a family alliance with himself at its head. Lazar did much to develop his territory in all aspects, economically, socially, and spiritually, but was most interested in developing his military through these family alliances, knowing there was an inevitable conflict with the Ottoman Turks, who were slowly conquering their way north through the Balkans. In 1396, this meeting finally took place, in the Battle of Kosovo Polje. The Serbs lost, with Lazar and many of his nobles killed. Fortunately, the Ottoman sultan, Murad, was also killed, preventing the Turks from following up their victory. Murad's son, Beyazid, was forced to withdraw from the region, and return to the Ottoman capital to ensure his accession as the new sultan.

Jovanovic places this type as a posthumous issue, struck by the local Venetian merchants, who controlled Novo Brdo. He viewed the reverse type and legend to be too much like a civic coinage, and thought there was no reason for Lazar to allow a city to strike coins. As an explanation for these coins, he hypothesizes that following the battle of Kosovo Polje, Lazar's wife attempted to maintain control, and as an expediency, agreed to allow the merchants to have coining authority. Jovanovic, however, overlooks the evidence that dies for Serbian coinage had been made in Venice or Italy since the beginning of Serbian coinage, and that the many of the types used closely resembled Italian civic types (particularly of Venice). Also, an expediency could also have forced Lazar to allow the Novo Brdo mint to strike coins. Lazar was involved in many conflicts during his reign, and certainly there were Italian mercenaries involved in some of them, and they may have desired such Italian types. The novel reverse legend, is also inconclusive by itself. Without further evidence, these coins must be assumed to be from Lazar's reign, not posthumous.

VUK BRANKOVIC
Vojvoda of Kosovo, 1371/5-1395/6

AR Dinar (0.67 g, 14mm, 7).

      Mint: Uncertain.
      Struck: Circa 1389-1395/6.
      Obv: +BΛЬ/KЬ ('VLK' in Serbian in two lines)
                Ivy vine (control symbol) to lower right, three groups of
                three pellets in fields, ornaments above and below.
      Rev: [no legend]
                Christ, nimbate, enthroned facing, holding Gospels;
                degraded IC XC flanking head.
      Ref: Jovanovic 33.18 var. (no pellets); Ivanisevic 31.8;
                Dimitrijevic 198.35.

Notes: Vuk Brankovic was knez of the Kosovo region, and controlled a number of important cities, Pristina (his capital), Vucitrn, Trepca, Zvecan, Pec, Prizren, Skoplje, and Sjenica. He was one of the local nobles who married a daughter of Knez Lazar, in 1371, becoming an integral part of Lazar's family alliance. In the Battle of Kosovo, Vuk commanded either the right wing or the reserve of the army led by Lazar. The details of the battle are not clear, but the Serb epics written in the centuries afterward vilified Brankovic, portraying him as abandoning the field of battle and leaving Lazar to die. More recent research, though, has vindicated Vuk, revealing that his forces fought valiantly, only retreating once the center of the Serbian forces, led by Lazar, were defeated, making any further fighting futile. Vuk returned to his domains, and prepared for more fighting against the Ottomans. Beyazid's withdrawal from the region enabled Brankovic to strengthen his position, and Vuk was able to successfully defend the region until 1392. It is uncertain whether it was at this time, or later, that Vuk was captured by the Turks, but he was in their captivity when he died in 1397.

STEFAN LAZAREVIC As Knez of Pomoravlje, 1389-1402 AR Dinar (0.36 g, 13mm, 4).
	Mint: Uncertain. Struck: Uncertain. Obv: COnTE • S • TEFAn • Stefan standing facing, holding labarum; trefoil to right. Rev: +ICZVZ (quatrefoil) C[RIZT]VZ Facing nimbate head of Christ. Ref: Novakovic type 6; Jovanovic 41.7; Ivanisevic 42.6; Dimitrijevic Dimitrijevic 234 var. (legends).

As Despot of Serbia, 1402-1427

AR Dinar (0.31 g, 13mm, 1).

      Mint: Uncertain.
      Struck: Uncertain.
      Obv: +ΔЄCΠOT CTЄΦA
                Cross pattée; pellet in each quarter.
      Rev: [no legend]
                Double-headed eagle; three pellets around.
      Ref: Novakovic type 1; Jovanovic 41.24; Ivanisevic 42.17;
                Dimitrijevic -.

Notes: Stefan Lazarevic was the son of Lazar Hrebeljanovic, and succeeded him as knez of Pomoravlje following the Battle of Kosovo Polje. After the battle, Hungary, a traditional opponent of Serbia, took advantage of the situation by seizing the northern Serbian lands. In reaction, Lazar's widow, who was regent while Stefan was in his minority, recognized the suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan. As such, Stefan fought alongside the Ottomans, against the Christian forces, at a number of major battles in the following years, including Karanovasa (1394), Rovine (1395), and Nicopolis (1396). In fact, Stefan's Serbs were pivotal in the Ottoman success at Nicopolis, reversing the initial gains of the Christian army, and changing the momentum of the battle in favor of the Turks. Stefan and his forces were also sided with the Ottomans at the battle of Angora in 1402, where the Turks were defeated by Tamerlane. The overwhelming defeat of the Ottomans at Angora enabled Stefan to reconcile with the Christians, particularly the Byzantines, who now recognized Stefan as Despot of Serbia. Relations were also repaired with Hungary, who returned the northern Serbian lands they had earlier seized. Although Serbia was relatively independent, it still was a nominal vassal of the Turks. Relations between sultan Suleiman and Stefan were good, but the sultan's death in 1411 brought his son, Musa to the throne, who was a staunch enemy of Stefan. Musa's brother, Mehemet I, however, made a bid for the throne, provoking a civil war. Stefan sided with Mehemet I, and their joint forces defeated Musa in 1413 near Mt. Vitosa. Stefan's rule was very prosperous for Serbia in many respects, economically, socially, and intellectually. He was also very pious, and founded a number of monasteries. Recognizing the power of his neighbor, the Hungarian king Sigismund I invited Stefan to join his Order of the Dragon in 1408. Stefan died relatively early, at only 53 years, in 1427, leaving the despotate to his capable nephew, Djuradj Brankovic.

ÐURAÐ BRANKOVIC
Despot, 1427-1456

AR Dinar (0.97 g, 16mm, 6).

      Mint: Uncertain.
      Struck: Struck circa 1427-1435.
      Obv: +ΓNЬ ΔЄCΠOTЬ ΓЮPЬΓЬ
                Lion rampant left; star below.
      Rev: [no legend]
                Christ, nimbate, enthroned facing, raising hand in
                benediction and holding Gospels; IC +C (Cs retro)
                flanking head.
      Ref: Jovanovic 42.22; Ivanisevic 45.10; Dimitrijevic 300.

Notes: The son of the powerful knez of Kosovo Vuk Brankovic, Ðurađ became despot of Serbia following the death of his uncle, Stefan Lazarevic, in 1427. From the moment of his accession, relations between Hungary and Serbia soured, and Ðurađ was forced to reaffirm his vassalage to the Ottoman sultan. Nonetheless, Serbia lost territory to both powers, whether by force (Hungary) or concession (Ottomans). With the capital of Stefan, Belgrade, now part of Hungary, Ðurađ built a new capital at Smederevo, and the fortress remains intact today. Regardless of the loss of territory, his Serbia continued the prosperity it enjoyed under Stefan. Ðurađ early years saw a strengthening of ties with the Byzantines, which may have provoked the invasion of the Ottomans under Murad II in 1438. The invasion was greatly successful, and almost all of Serbia, including Smederevo, fell to the Turks. Without a country, Ðurađ tried to organize a campaign of combined Christian forces to liberate his lands, but the death of the Hungarian Emperor Sigismund I resulted in a factionalization that prevented any joint action by most leaders. Finally, in 1443, Ðurađ joined the grand crusade of Vladislav III of Poland and Jan Hunyadi of Hungary against the Ottomans. The crusaders defeated the Turks in a number of battles, and Serbia was liberated. In 1444, at the behest of the Pope, the crusade was renewed. The Ottomans made a peace offering on very favorable terms, and Ðurađ convinced Hunyadi to accept them. The Pope, however, forced the Christians to return to the crusade, but Ðurađ did not participate. This time the crusade ended in a major disaster, at the battle of Varna, in which Vladislav was killed and Hunyadi barely escaped. Hunyadi assembled another army and led a new campaign in 1448 that resulted in another defeat at the second battle of Kosovo Polje. Ðurađ remained a neutral party in this, and subsequent campaigns, which enabled him to mediate a peace treaty between the Hungarians and Ottomans in 1451. That same year, though, a new sultan, Mehemet II, succeeded to the Turkish throne, and his accession saw a massive effort to finally conquer Constantinople, and spread the Ottoman realm into Europe. In 1453, as a vassal to the sultan, Ðurađ was forced to send troops to aid the Turks in their capture of the Byzantine captial (ironically, only a few years before Serbians were sent to help strengthen the walls of the city). Soon, relations between the Serbs and Ottomans cooled, and, in 1455, Mehemet led his army into Serbia, capturing the important Novo Brdo mines. The following year, the combined forces of the Serbs and Hungarians successfully defended Belgrade against the Ottomans. Unfortunately, a plague broke out in the aftermath that killed the leaders of the Christians, Jan Hunyadi and Cardinal Capistrano. Whether it was also due to the plague, Ðurađ also died, leaving Serbia to his son, Lazar.